Culturally Significant Species
Pagwadjimin, Kahi’shon:a, Wild Berries
Indigenous Peoples of Turtle Island (North America) have been gathering and utilizing over 250 species of berries and fruits for their nutritional and medicinal value for thousands of years. Many Indigenous people consider berries to be a special gift from the Creator to children and women. Wild berries are extremely rich in vitamin C which strengthens connective tissue, helps to absorb iron, promotes healing, and cooperates with the B complex in maintaining the endocrine system. A severe deficiency of Vitamin C leads to scurvy, a disease that was common in Europe at one time and which was attributed then to "bad air." Indigenous Peoples had already recognized the dietary basis of the disease and knew how to prevent and cure it with medicines such as berries.
“Kneeling upon soft mosses or standing at a bramble of thorny harvest; their quick fingers dancing across bushes heavy with their succulent fruit, our grandmothers gathered berries of many colours with joy and grateful recognition.” - Tekatsi:tsia’kwa (Katsi Cook), Akwesasne First Nation
Indigenous Peoples of Turtle Island (North America) have been gathering and utilizing over 250 species of berries and fruits for their nutritional and medicinal value for thousands of years. Many Indigenous people consider berries to be a special gift from the Creator to children and women. Wild berries are extremely rich in vitamin C which strengthens connective tissue, helps to absorb iron, promotes healing, and cooperates with the B complex in maintaining the endocrine system. A severe deficiency of Vitamin C leads to scurvy, a disease that was common in Europe at one time and which was attributed then to "bad air." Indigenous Peoples had already recognized the dietary basis of the disease and knew how to prevent and cure it with medicines such as berries.
“Kneeling upon soft mosses or standing at a bramble of thorny harvest; their quick fingers dancing across bushes heavy with their succulent fruit, our grandmothers gathered berries of many colours with joy and grateful recognition.” - Tekatsi:tsia’kwa (Katsi Cook), Akwesasne First Nation
Odeyimin, Ken'niiohontésha, Strawberry, Fragaria spp.
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Wild strawberry is a ground-hugging plant rising from a fibrous, perennial root system. Hairy leaf petioles each bear a single trifoliate leaf. The hairy flower stalk gives rise to a loose cluster of small, white, five-petaled flowers. The edible portion of the strawberry is actually the central portion of the flower (receptacle) which enlarges greatly with maturity and is covered with the dried, seed-like fruit. It is found in fields, woodland edges, along roadsides, disturbed areas, and other dry open areas. It grows in full or partial sun in nearly any soil type but prefers slightly acidic, well-drained loam soil. The main wild varieties in Ontario are Fragaria virginiana and Fragaria vesca.
Odeyimin kìzis, Strawberry Moon, is the sixth moon of creation and the Anishnaabe calendar. It marks the beginning of summer, the longest day of the year and the harvest of the strawberry in June. Amoung Algonquin, Mohawk, and other Indignous Peoples, the wild strawberry is regarded as the "leader" of the berries. It is the first berry food to appear in the spring and this sacred plant is gathered, eaten, and celebrated at that time, as a way to recover from difficult winter months. The root word of odeyimin is odey, which signifies the "heart" in Anishnaabe language. As the strawberry resembles the shape and colour of the human heart it also represents the sweetness and kindest of emotions that bring people together to feast and exchange ideas. The leaves and berries are rich in iron and contain the minerals magnesium, potassium and sodium, making it a valuable blood remedy, and is also considered to be a powerful medicine for your heart and teeth.
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Photo: Dabjola Getty Images
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Miskomin, Skanekwen’tará:nen, Raspberry, Rubus spp.
Photo: Martin Walhborg Getty Images
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The main wild variety in Ontario is the American red raspberry (Rubus strigosus or Rubus idaeus ssp. strigosus). It is a shrubby bramble that grows up to 0.5-2 m tall, it is perennial with biennial stems (canes), can be almost unarmed or prickly and bristly, often glandular-hairy. Leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, 5-20 cm long, with leaflets that are double-saw-toothed and sharply long-pointed at the tip. There are 3-5 leaflets on first-year canes, and mostly 3 on flowering canes, with five-petaled flowers produced in late spring. The fruit is a small drupelet cluster that falls intact from the dry receptacle, produced in summer or early autumn. It is found in forest clearings and edges, disturbed areas, river banks, roadsides and old fields. It can tolerate a variety of soil moisture and pH levels, but prefer well-drained soil, and thrive in full sun. Other wild varieties in Ontario include the dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens), black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis), and Arctic raspberry (Rubus arcticus).
Miskomin kìzis, Raspberry Moon, is the seventh moon of creation, taking place in July and signifying the ripening of the raspberries (black caps) and time to harvest this medicine and food. Raspberries have traditionally been considered an effective medicine for dysentery, diseases of the eye, and of all the berries, and is considered to be one of the most useful berries for women throughout the reproductive years. The berries and leaves are rich in iron, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium- important nutrients for the reproductive organs. In pregnancy, tea made from the leaves is good for nausea. It is also used as medicine during and after childbirth to help with labour, enrich the mother’s milk, and promote normal menstrual function.
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Aditagàgomin, Shá:ise, Blackberry, Rubus spp.
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Closely related to raspberries, blackberry plants have biennial stems (canes) covered with prickles that can grow erect, semi-erect, or trailing. The pinnately compound leaves usually feature three or five oval, coarsely toothed, stalked leaflets. The five-petaled flowers grow on terminal shoots and can be white, pink, or red petals and produce black or red-purple fruits. Unlike the hollow fruits of raspberries, the drupelets of blackberries remain attached to the juicy white core (torus), thus distinguishing the two. It is found in forests, woodlands, forest edges, clearings, disturbed areas, river banks, roadsides and old fields. It prefers full sun and grows well in most soils but prefers loamy soils that are moist but well-drained and rich in organic matter. Wild varieties in Ontario include the common blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis), and highbush blackberry (Rubus canadensis).
Aditagàgomin kìzis, the eighth moon of Creation is Thimbleberry Moon (Blackberry Moon), when the blackberry, which produces an abundance of fruit once every three years, is honoured. It was one of the first plants put on Mother Earth, and its purpose is to protect the Sacred Circle of life by allowing us to recognize and understand the teachings that come from the Spirit World. The eighth moon can fall in either July or August, depending on the year. The blackberry root and leaves, sometimes in combination with wild strawberry leaves, have long been known as an effective remedy of diarrhea and dysentery.
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Photo: Garrett Aitken Getty Images
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Anìbimin, Tó:kwahre, Highbush Cranberry, Viburnum opulus ssp. trilobum
Photo: Lauraag Getty Images
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A hardy shrub typically 2-5 m tall, with arching stems and a very dense, rounded form. It is noted for attracting wildlife, especially birds which benefit from the fruit, which can remain on the branches well into mid winter. Leaves are opposite, simple, 3-lobed, and 5-10 cm long. They are superficially similar to many maple leaves, but have a somewhat wrinkled surface. They are glossy dark green in the summer but often change to yellow-red or red-purple in the fall. 5-8 cm wide flat-top clusters of showy white flowers, with an outer ring of larger, sterile flowers, are produced in late spring. The fruit ripens in late summer and is a nearly round drupe about 8 mm in diameter with a single large seed. It is found in damp thickets, moist woods, river banks, forest edges. It is tolerant of frost, likes sun or semi-shade, and is successful in most soil types but does best in well-drained, moist soil that is rich and loamy. Established plants can tolerate drought well. They are not a “true” cranberry, but the red, juicy, acidic fruits taste very similar to the “true” cranberries that grow in bogs.
Berries are eaten and can be used to make a tasty cranberry sauce and are an important food source in central and coastal regions. They are traditionally stored while still hard and green, in boxes with oil and water. The berries became softer and sweeter over time and these boxes are valuable gifts during feasts.
A tea made from the bark can be used as a pain-reliever, as well as relief from muscular and menstrual cramps. A tea made from the leaves or a gargle made from leaves and twigs can soothe sore throats and coughs. The stems can also be used for crafting such as for birch bark basket rims. The fruits should not be eaten raw in quantity, as uncooked fruit can cause vomiting and severe cramps. |
Wìmbisagashk, Orà:se, Common Elderberry, Sambucus canadensis or Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis
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A shrub growing to 3 m or more tall. The leaves are in opposite pairs, pinnate with five to nine leaflets, the leaflets around 10 cm long and 5 cm wide. In summer, it bears large (20-30 cm diameter) corymbs of white flowers above the foliage, the individual flowers 5-6 mm diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a dark purple to black berry, 3-5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in the fall. It is found in fields and open areas, moist meadows, thickets, forest and woodland edges, river banks. It can grow in a variety of soil types and pH conditions, but prefers rich, moist soil. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade.
The berries of common elderberry were eaten fresh or dried for winter storage by various Indigenous Peoples including Algonquin, Ojibwa, Iroquois, Micmac, and Malecite. Within the last century, the berries have been used for jam, jelly and wine. The flowers can be used as flavouring or for tea. Every part of the elderberry plant has also been widely used by Indigenous People for medicinal purposes. An infusion of the inner bark, leaves and flowers is used as an antiseptic wash for skin problems, wounds etc., and an infusion of the leaf buds is a very strong laxative. The fresh juice of the fruit, evaporated into a syrup, is a laxative, and can also be mixed with an oily base and applied to burns. The inner bark is a diuretic, emetic, and strong laxative. The flowers are a stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic. The root bark can promote labour in childbirth and help headaches, kidney problems, and mucus congestion. The dried fruit can be made into a tea that can help treat cholera and diarrhea. Caution should be exercised if using any part of the plant fresh as it can cause poisoning.
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Photo: Milous Getty Images
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Ininàtig, Wàh:ta, Sugar Maple, Acer Saccharu
Photo: JCTomlin Getty Images
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The sugar maple is a large tree that can grow up to 40 m tall and can live for more than 200 years. Its 8-20 cm long leaves have five lobes and are yellowish-green, turning yellow, brilliant orange or red in the fall. The bark is smooth and grey, and becomes darker and splits into ridges that curl out as the tree gets older. The fruits are paired samaras (“keys”). Seed dispersal occurs every autumn, with an abundant crop every 4-7 years.
Found in a variety of habitats including mixed and deciduous forests/woods, prairies/meadows, and riparian zones. The sugar maple is one of the most shade tolerant deciduous trees. It prefers well-drained, moderately moist, deep and rich soil and is highly sensitive to salt. It is native to areas with cooler climates and requires a hard freeze each winter for proper dormancy. It ranges from Nova Scotia to southern Manitoba, and south to Tennessee. Maple sap, ninaatigwaaboo ‘maple tree water’, has been used by Anishinaabe and other Indigenous nations for thousands of years as an integral staple of diet after long, harsh winters when food reserves became low. Maple sap provides nourishment and has healing properties that help restore the body after harsh winters. In older times, the sap was typically used to make granulated sugar because it was easier to store than syrup and the Anishinaabe boiled sap to sugar without metal, just bark and heated stones. The sap has long been used to make syrup, sugar, taffy, candy, and a sweetener for cooking (it can also serve as a type of vinegar for cooking after being left to sour). Maple sugar can be used as an anesthetic and is also used to preserve meat and food. A tea from the inner bark is an expectorant (clearing mucus from the respiratory system) and is used to treat coughs and respiratory issues. Maple sap, sugar or syrup can help treat ailments such as croup, heart and digestive problems, and others.
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Mìshimij, Otokénha, Bur Oak, Quercus macrocarpa
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The bur oak is a medium to large tree, growing up to 30 m tall. It is the most common oak in Ontario. The leaves are 15-25 cm long, and are shiny green on top, and pale and hairy underneath. Its acorns are 1.5-3 cm long and have a deep cup covering 2/3 of the acorn. The cup has a bristle fringe around the upper edge. It has thick, corky bark and deep roots, making it an excellent drought and fire resistant species. It is usually tall with a straight trunk but if grown in shallow soil, it can be smaller with a twisted trunk and gnarled branches.
Bur oak is the most common oak species in Canada, and is found in a variety of habitats from mixed and deciduous forests/woods to prairies/meadows and sandhills. Its range extends in southern Canada from the maritimes to the prairies, and south through the midwestern states to Texas. It prefers full sun, but can tolerate moderate shade. It can grow in a wide variety of different soils types, including compacted soil, but does best in slightly alkaline conditions.
Bur oak acorns are sweet and edible, and can be used as a source of food, often ground into a flavourful flour and used to make bread. The seeds can be roasted and made into a coffee-like drink. The bark or any galls on the tree can be brewed into a tea or infusion to treat diarrhea, hemorrhages, bleeding, and insect bites. Tea made with the root or inner bark can be used to treat menstrual cramps and heart conditions. |
Photo: Marimaria Shutterstock
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Shingwàk, Tsionerahtase’kó:wa, Eastern White Pine, Pinus strobus
Photo: Boyd J English Shutterstock
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The eastern white pine can grow to be more than 40 m tall. It has skinny needles that are 6-12 cm long and grow in bunches of five. The cones are 8-20 cm long and they hang down from the branches. Good seed crops aren’t produced until trees are 20-30 years old, and then only every 3-5 years. The bark is dark greyish brown with broad 2-5cm thick ridges. If it is exposed to a lot of wind, it can become a bit lopsided, with small, short branches on the side that faces the wind.
Found in mixed and deciduous forests/woods. Ranges from western Ontario to the Atlantic provinces (including Newfoundland) and throughout most of north central and the northeastern US. It grows quickly and best with full sunlight, but young trees can tolerate some shade. It can grow in a variety of soil types but prefers a slightly acidic soil that is well-drained such as sand or sandy loam, and will not survive in compacted clay soils. The white pine, described as the "tree of peace," is a symbol of the unity of the nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacy. Because of their immense height they typically stick out from the rest of the trees in a forest and can be seen from great distances, making them places of meeting. These magnificent giants of the forest are also referred to by the Anishinaabe as ancestor trees, watching over all of our other big brother trees. Various parts of the tree can be used to treat coughs and respiratory issues. A tea or decoction of the needles is an effective expectorant (clearing mucus from the respiratory system). A small piece of the pith can also be chewed to promote expectoration. Pine-needle tea is a good healing medicine and is extremely rich in vitamin C. The sap is naturally antibacterial and can be used to treat wounds. The soft inner bark has a bittersweet taste and can be used as survival food by drying it and pounding it into flour. Pitch from boiled cones and resin can be used for waterproofing.
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